Europe did not have "nation-states" in the modern sense until the ____.

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Europe did not have "nation-states" in the modern sense until the middle of the eighteenth century. The nations that we now know as Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were once divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, each of whose rulers had its independent territory. Autocratic regimes ruled Eastern and Central Europe, which contained a variety of ethnic populations. They did not consider themselves to have a shared culture or collective identity. They frequently even spoke various languages and belonged to various ethnic groups. Such disparities made it difficult to foster political cohesion. Only a shared commitment to the emperor brought these disparate parties together.

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