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By Rohit RP
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Updated on 13 Aug 2026, 13:28 IST
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 4 The Age of Industrialisation help students understand how industrial production developed in Britain and India, how factories changed traditional systems of production, and how colonial rule affected Indian weavers, traders and industrialists.
This chapter from India and the Contemporary World – II explains that industrialisation was not simply a sudden shift from hand production to machines. Hand labour, small workshops, household production and factories existed side by side for a long period. The chapter also examines proto-industrialisation, the growth of the cotton industry, the condition of workers, Indian textiles, Manchester imports, early Indian entrepreneurs and the impact of the First World War on Indian industries.
The solutions below follow the current NCERT Class 10 History Chapter 4 and are written in a direct, exam-ready format. Each major answer begins with the central point first, followed by a detailed explanation to make revision easier.
| Particular | Details |
| Class | 10 |
| Subject | Social Science – History |
| Book | India and the Contemporary World – II |
| Chapter | Chapter 4 / Chapter IV |
| Chapter Name | The Age of Industrialisation |
| Main Theme | Growth of industrial production in Britain and colonial India |
| Important Concepts | Proto-industrialisation, factory system, Spinning Jenny, gomastha, hand labour, fly shuttle |
| Important Indian Topics | Indian textiles, Manchester goods, early entrepreneurs, workers, First World War |
| Primary Source | NCERT Class 10 History textbook |
Answer: Women workers attacked the Spinning Jenny because the machine reduced the amount of labour required for spinning and created fear that hand spinners would lose their jobs.
The Spinning Jenny was devised by James Hargreaves in 1764. It allowed a worker to operate several spindles at the same time, increasing the amount of yarn that could be produced.
Many women in Britain earned their livelihood through hand spinning. They believed that widespread use of the new machine would reduce the demand for their labour and threaten their income. As a result, women workers who depended on spinning for employment reacted strongly against the machine.
Answer: Merchants shifted production to the countryside because trade guilds in towns controlled production and restricted the entry of new merchants into manufacturing.
In seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe, urban crafts and trade were controlled by powerful guilds. These associations regulated competition, trained craftsmen, controlled prices and decided who could enter a particular trade.
New merchants therefore found it difficult to expand production within towns.
At the same time, many peasants in the countryside needed additional income. Common lands were disappearing, and small agricultural plots were often not enough to support entire families.
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Merchants began supplying raw materials to rural households. Peasants and artisans processed these materials in their homes and returned the finished goods to merchants.
This created a large network of production outside factories.
Answer: Surat declined because European trading companies gained greater control over overseas trade and shifted commercial activity towards colonial ports such as Bombay.
During the seventeenth century, Surat was one of India's most important ports. It connected India with the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and other international markets.
Its decline occurred because:
As European political and commercial power expanded, Surat lost much of its earlier importance.
Answer: The East India Company appointed gomasthas to control weavers, secure regular textile supplies and prevent them from selling cloth to competing buyers.
Before the Company established political control, Indian weavers could sell their products to different traders and negotiate prices.
As the East India Company expanded its authority, it wanted complete control over textile production.
The Company appointed paid agents known as gomasthas. Their responsibilities included:
Weavers who accepted Company advances often became dependent on the Company. They could no longer freely negotiate prices or sell their cloth elsewhere.
Answer: False.
Even at the end of the nineteenth century, technologically advanced industries employed only a limited proportion of the total workforce. Traditional workshops, small-scale industries and hand production continued to employ large numbers of people.
Answer: True.
Indian cotton and silk textiles were famous throughout the world for their quality, fine workmanship and attractive designs. Indian merchants supplied textiles to markets in Asia, Africa and Europe.
Answer: False.
The American Civil War disrupted the supply of raw cotton from the United States to Britain. British manufacturers therefore turned increasingly towards India for raw cotton, causing Indian cotton exports to Britain to rise sharply for a period.
Answer: True.
The fly shuttle increased the speed of weaving and allowed weavers to produce wider pieces of cloth more efficiently. Its adoption helped sections of the handloom industry improve productivity and compete with factory-made goods.
Answer: Proto-industrialisation refers to the large-scale production of goods for international markets before the rise of modern factories.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants in Europe organised production through rural households.
The system generally worked in the following way:
This system was not based on factories, but production was organised on a large scale.
Proto-industrialisation therefore formed an important stage between traditional household production and the modern factory system.
Proto-industrialisation is the phase of industrial production for markets that developed before factories became the dominant form of manufacturing.
Answer: Many industrialists preferred hand labour because workers were widely available and inexpensive, machines required large investment, seasonal industries did not need continuous production, and handmade goods could provide greater variety.
Several factors explain why machines did not immediately replace workers.
Large numbers of people migrated to cities in search of employment. Industrialists could therefore hire workers at relatively low wages.
When labour was inexpensive, there was less economic incentive to invest heavily in machinery.
New machines required considerable capital. They could also break down and involve costly repairs.
For many manufacturers, employing workers remained cheaper.
Industries whose demand increased only during particular seasons did not need expensive machines operating throughout the year.
Hiring additional workers during busy periods was often more practical.
Machines were effective for producing large quantities of standardised products.
However, wealthy consumers often preferred goods with:
These were easier to produce by skilled workers.
In Victorian Britain, handmade products were often associated with refinement, craftsmanship and social status.
Answer: The East India Company established direct control over weavers through advances, contracts and gomasthas so that it could obtain textiles regularly and prevent competition from other traders.
Before Company rule expanded, Indian textile merchants competed to purchase cloth from weavers.
The Company wanted to remove this competition.
The Company tried to establish monopoly control over textile trade.
Company agents supervised weavers and collected cloth.
Weavers were offered loans or advances to purchase raw materials.
After accepting an advance, a weaver was expected to produce cloth only for the Company.
They could not freely sell their goods to other buyers even when those buyers offered better prices.
Gomasthas regularly inspected production and enforced contracts.
The system created conflict between weavers and Company officials. Many weavers disliked the loss of freedom and the low prices they received.
Answer: Cotton became one of the leading industries of Britain's Industrial Revolution because growing international demand, technological inventions and the factory system transformed the production of cotton textiles.
Before modern factories became dominant, cotton goods were produced through networks of merchants, artisans and rural households.
During the eighteenth century, demand for cotton textiles increased rapidly.
Several important changes followed.
Britain increasingly imported raw cotton to supply its expanding textile industry.
As demand for cotton cloth grew, manufacturers looked for ways to increase production.
New machines changed different stages of textile production.
The Spinning Jenny, devised by James Hargreaves in 1764, allowed one worker to operate several spindles.
Other technological developments increased spinning and weaving capacity.
Richard Arkwright played an important role in organising cotton production within mills.
Factories brought workers and machines together under one roof.
This made it easier to:
Cotton became one of the most dynamic industries in Britain during the early period of industrialisation.
However, factories did not immediately replace older forms of production.
Hand labour, domestic workshops and small-scale production remained important for decades.
Answer: Indian industrial production increased during the First World War because British factories were occupied with war needs, imports into India declined, and Indian factories received greater demand for locally manufactured and military goods.
The First World War created unusual conditions for Indian industries.
British industries concentrated on producing materials required for the war.
As a result, exports of British manufactured goods to India decreased.
With fewer British goods entering Indian markets, Indian manufacturers had greater opportunities to sell their products.
Factories were asked to supply goods such as:
Factories increased production and workers often worked longer shifts.
As demand increased, industries recruited additional workers.
The First World War provided Indian industries with a protected market and large new orders, leading to rapid growth in industrial production.
Industrial production existed before modern factories.
Merchants organised production in rural households because urban guilds restricted competition. Peasants and artisans produced goods for merchants while continuing to participate in agriculture.
This system is known as proto-industrialisation.
Factories became increasingly important in Britain during the eighteenth century.
Cotton was one of the first industries to experience rapid technological change.
Factories concentrated workers, machinery and production in one location, allowing owners to supervise manufacturing more closely.
Industrialisation was not an instant transformation.
Traditional industries continued to dominate employment for a long time.
Technological changes were adopted slowly because machines were expensive, repairs were difficult, and employers could often hire cheap labour.
Machines did not completely replace workers.
Industrialists frequently preferred hand labour because:
This shows that the history of industrialisation involved both machinery and manual work.
Industrial growth attracted large numbers of people to cities.
However, finding permanent employment was difficult.
Many workers had:
Machines could also create fear of job losses, as seen in the opposition to the Spinning Jenny.
Before British industrial goods dominated Indian markets, Indian cotton and silk textiles were internationally famous.
Indian cloth was exported to different regions of Asia, Africa and Europe.
Fine Indian textiles were valued for their:
The expansion of East India Company control changed the position of Indian weavers.
The Company:
Later, Indian weavers also faced competition from cheaper British machine-made cloth.
Many experienced falling incomes and growing economic difficulties.
As British cotton industries expanded, British manufactured cloth entered Indian markets in increasing quantities.
This created two major problems for Indian textile producers:
Indian textiles faced stronger competition abroad.
Machine-made British cloth was sold in India, reducing demand for some locally produced textiles.
The relationship between Britain and India therefore changed.
India increasingly supplied raw materials while becoming an important market for British manufactured goods.
Modern industries began developing in India during the nineteenth century.
Some important milestones include:
These developments marked the growth of modern factory industries in India.
Indian entrepreneurs played an important role in industrial development.
Business groups accumulated capital through trade and later invested in industries.
Important names associated with early Indian enterprise include:
Indian merchants operated within a colonial economy in which European companies controlled many major trading sectors.
Most factory workers came from nearby villages and rural districts.
People moved to industrial centres in search of employment and additional income.
However, workers usually maintained links with their home villages.
Many returned home during harvests, festivals or periods when factory work was unavailable.
Recruitment was also often organised through a jobber, a person who helped factory owners find workers.
Large factories were important, but they did not employ the majority of India's industrial workforce.
Small workshops and household industries remained widespread.
Handloom weaving survived partly because:
Industrialisation therefore did not mean the complete disappearance of traditional manufacturing.
Factories could only grow if manufacturers found customers for their products.
Industrialists used advertising, packaging, labels and calendars to create demand.
Labels helped consumers recognise particular manufacturers and products.
Indian gods and goddesses were sometimes placed on advertisements and labels to make products appear familiar and trustworthy to Indian consumers.
Calendars carrying advertisements reached homes, offices and shops and helped manufacturers repeatedly expose consumers to their brands.
During the Swadeshi period, Indian manufacturers also encouraged consumers to buy Indian-made goods as an expression of nationalism.
Industrial growth depended not only on manufacturing goods but also on creating and expanding markets for those goods.
A system of large-scale production for markets that existed before modern factories became common.
A spinning machine devised by James Hargreaves in 1764 that enabled one worker to operate several spindles at once.
A paid agent appointed by the East India Company to supervise Indian weavers, collect supplies and enforce Company contracts.
A device used in weaving that increased a weaver's speed and made it easier to produce wider cloth.
A person employed by factory owners to recruit workers. Jobbers often became influential because workers depended on them for employment.
A person who sorted wool according to its fibre.
A worker who cleaned and thickened cloth during textile production.
The process through which fibres such as cotton or wool are prepared before spinning.
| Person | Importance |
| James Hargreaves | Devised the Spinning Jenny in 1764 |
| Richard Arkwright | Associated with the development of the factory-based cotton spinning system |
| James Watt | Improved steam-engine technology |
| Dwarkanath Tagore | Important early Indian businessman and entrepreneur |
| Dinshaw Petit | Early Indian industrial entrepreneur |
| Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata | Major Indian industrialist associated with the development of modern industry |
| Year/Period | Development |
| Seventeenth–eighteenth centuries | Proto-industrial production expanded in Europe |
| 1730s | Some of the earliest factories appeared in England |
| 1764 | James Hargreaves devised the Spinning Jenny |
| Late eighteenth century | Factory production expanded rapidly |
| By late eighteenth century | Surat's importance as a major port had declined |
| 1854 | First cotton mill in Bombay came up |
| 1855 | First jute mill established in Bengal |
| 1860s | Elgin Mill established in Kanpur |
| 1874 | Spinning and weaving mill began production in Madras |
| 1914–1918 | First World War stimulated Indian industrial production |
| Cause | Effect |
| Urban guilds restricted new producers | Merchants moved production to villages |
| Rural families needed additional income | Peasants accepted merchant work |
| Growing international demand | Production networks expanded |
| Merchants supplied raw materials | Rural households produced for distant markets |
| Cause | Effect |
| European companies gained greater commercial power | Indian merchants lost control over trade |
| Traditional trade networks weakened | Surat's overseas trade declined |
| Colonial trade shifted to new ports | Bombay became more important |
| Credit for older commercial networks declined | Traditional banking and trading groups weakened |
| Cause | Effect |
| Company monopoly | Fewer alternative buyers |
| Gomasthas supervised production | Loss of independence |
| Advances tied weavers to contracts | Reduced bargaining power |
| British machine-made imports increased | Greater competition in Indian markets |
| Raw material prices could rise | Production became more expensive |
| Cause | Effect |
| British factories focused on war production | British exports to India fell |
| Imports declined | Indian manufacturers faced less foreign competition |
| Military demand increased | Indian factories received new orders |
| Production expanded | More workers and longer working hours were required |
| Proto-industrialisation | Factory Production |
| Production took place mainly in homes and villages | Production concentrated in factories |
| Merchants coordinated rural producers | Factory owners directly supervised workers |
| Hand tools were dominant | Machines became increasingly important |
| Families often combined farming and manufacturing | Workers depended more heavily on wages |
| Hand Production | Machine Production |
| Greater flexibility | Greater standardisation |
| Useful for specialised designs | Useful for mass production |
| Required skilled labour | Could reduce labour needed per unit |
| Often cheaper where labour was abundant | Required investment in machines |
Students should pay particular attention to:
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 4 The Age of Industrialisation show that industrialisation was a gradual and uneven historical process rather than a sudden replacement of workers by machines.
Britain's industrial growth involved proto-industrial production, technological innovation, factories and continued dependence on hand labour. In India, colonial rule transformed existing textile networks, weakened the independence of weavers and opened markets to British manufactured goods. At the same time, Indian entrepreneurs established factories, handloom industries adapted to changing conditions, and the First World War created new opportunities for domestic industrial production.
Understanding these connections is more useful than memorising isolated facts. Students should focus especially on the relationship between technology, labour, colonialism, markets and industrial growth, as these ideas connect almost every major question in the chapter.
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Proto-industrialisation was the system of producing goods for national and international markets before factories became widespread. Merchants supplied raw materials to rural families, who manufactured products in their homes.
James Hargreaves devised the Spinning Jenny in 1764. It allowed one worker to operate several spindles simultaneously and greatly increased spinning productivity.
Workers feared that the machine would reduce the demand for manual spinning and cause unemployment. Women who depended heavily on hand spinning were particularly concerned about losing their livelihoods.
Gomasthas were agents appointed by the East India Company to supervise Indian weavers, collect finished textiles, provide advances and ensure that producers sold their cloth to the Company.
Surat declined because European companies gained greater control over overseas trade, older commercial networks weakened and colonial trade shifted towards ports such as Bombay.
Labour was cheap and abundant, machines were expensive, some industries were seasonal, and handmade production allowed manufacturers to create specialised goods and varied designs.
Indian weavers lost much of their economic independence. The East India Company controlled them through advances and gomasthas, restricted their choice of buyers and later exposed them to competition from British machine-made textiles.
Machine-made cotton goods produced in Britain entered Indian markets in large quantities. They competed with Indian textiles and reduced demand for several categories of locally manufactured cloth.
British imports declined because British factories concentrated on war production. Indian industries therefore faced less foreign competition and received large orders for military and civilian goods.
The fly shuttle increased weaving speed and made it easier to produce wider pieces of cloth. It helped some handloom producers improve productivity and compete with factory-made textiles.
Advertisements helped manufacturers create demand and establish brand recognition. Companies used labels, images, calendars and nationalist messages to persuade consumers to purchase particular products.
The Swadeshi Movement encouraged Indians to boycott foreign goods and purchase Indian-made products. This helped create greater demand for some Indian industries and strengthened the link between nationalism and domestic production.
In the current NCERT Class 10 History textbook, India and the Contemporary World – II, The Age of Industrialisation is Chapter 4 (Chapter IV). Some older online study resources may still refer to it as Chapter 5 because they follow previous textbook arrangements.
Students using the latest NCERT edition should study it as Chapter 4.