Organic Chemistry

The basic principles of organic chemistry are the same as those of inorganic chemistry, but the techniques are different. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of elements that are not carbon-based, while organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of carbon-based molecules. The techniques used in organic chemistry are more complex because the molecules are more complex. In inorganic chemistry, the molecules are typically simple ions or molecules made up of a few atoms.

Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds

The tetravalence of carbon allows for the formation of a variety of organic compounds with different shapes. The four valence electrons of carbon can be used to form covalent bonds with other atoms, allowing for the formation of chains, rings, and other structures. Carbon can also form bonds with other elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur, to create a variety of organic compounds.

Structural Representations of Organic Compounds

Organic molecules are typically represented in one of two ways: either by a structural formula or by a skeletal formula.

A structural formula shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule and is useful for predicting how the molecule will behave. For example, the structural formula for methane, CH4, shows that the molecule consists of one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.

A skeletal formula is a simplified version of a structural formula that shows the relative positions of the atoms but doesn’t show the individual bonds between them. For example, the skeletal formula for methane, CH4, would simply show the four carbon and hydrogen atoms with lines connecting them.

Classification of Organic Compounds

• Organic compounds are classified into two major categories:

1) hydrocarbons and
2) derivatives of carbon.

• Hydrocarbons are compounds made only of hydrogen and carbon. They are further classified into two subgroups:

1) alkanes, which are saturated hydrocarbons, and
2) alkenes and alkynes, which are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

• Derivatives of carbon are compounds that contain carbon and at least one other type of atom. They are further classified into five subgroups:

1) alcohols,
2) ethers,
3) aldehydes,
4) ketones, and
5) carboxylic acids.

Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

1. IUPAC name

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) provides a system for naming organic compounds. The IUPAC system uses a two-part naming system, in which the first part of the name is the functional group and the second part of the name is the hydrocarbon chain.

2. Common name

The common name is the name that is most commonly used to refer to the compound. The common name is not standardized and can vary from one source to another.

Nomenclature of Organic Compounds with Functional Groups

IUPAC-recommended names of organic compounds with functional groups

• alcohol
• aldehyde
• amine
• amino acid
• carboxylic acid
• ester
• ether
• ketone
• amine
• amide
• nitrile
• phenol
• aldehyde
• alcohol
• carboxylic acid
• ester
• ether
• ketone
• amine
• amide
• nitrile

phenol

Nomenclature of Substituted Benzene Compounds

The IUPAC nomenclature of substituted benzene compounds is a system for naming organic compounds. The system uses a prefix to indicate the number of substituents on a benzene ring, followed by the name of the substituent.

For example, a compound with two substituents on a benzene ring would be named “2-methylbenzene”. A compound with three substituents on a benzene ring would be named “3-chlorobenzene”.

Some common substituents include:

-methyl
-ethyl
-propyl
-chloro
-fluoro
-bromo
-iodo

Isomerism

Isomerism is a phenomenon where molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures are called isomers. There are two types of isomers: structural isomers and stereoisomers. Structural isomers are molecules that have the same atomic formula but different connectivity of their atoms. Stereoisomers are molecules that have the same atomic formula and connectivity of their atoms but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms.

Types of Isomers or Isomerism –

Structural and Stereoisomers

There are two types of isomers: structural isomers and stereoisomers.

Structural isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula but a different arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. There are two types of structural isomers:

Conformational isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula and the same number of atoms, but the atoms are arranged in a different way.

Chain isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula and the same number of atoms, but the atoms are connected in a different way.

Stereoisomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula and the same number of atoms, but the atoms are arranged in a different way and they have a different spatial arrangement. There are two types of stereoisomers:

Enantiomers are molecules that are mirror images of each other. They are non-superimposable, meaning that if you try to put them on top of each other, they will not fit.

Diastereomers are molecules that are not mirror images of each other. They are superimposable, meaning that if you try to put them on top of each other, they will fit.

Structural Isomerism Can Be Further Divided Into Following Subtypes

• Conformational isomerism
• Geometric isomerism
• Enantiomerism
• Diastereomerism

Stereoisomerism Can Be Subdivided Into Following Subtypes

There are three types of stereoisomerism:

1. enantiomerism
2. diastereomerism
3. configurational isomerism.

Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism

The following are some of the most fundamental concepts in organic reaction mechanism:

1. The rates of organic reactions are determined by the rearrangement of the electron density in the reacting molecules. This rearrangement is known as the reaction mechanism.

2. The mechanism involves the exchange or sharing of electrons between the reacting molecules.

3. The mechanism also involves the movement of atoms or groups of atoms within the molecules.

4. The mechanism is determined by the electronic structure of the molecules.

5. The mechanism is determined by the steric and electronic effects of the substituents on the molecules.

Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds

The most common methods of purifying organic compounds are distillation and chromatography.

Sublimation

printing is the process of transferring a digital image onto a piece of paper. The image is first printed onto a special transfer paper. The transfer paper is then placed in contact with the surface to be printed and heated. The heat causes the ink to be transferred from the transfer paper to the surface.

Crystallization

Crystallization is the natural process of forming solid crystals from a liquid or gas.

The formation of a crystal begins with molecules in the liquid or gas becoming arranged in an orderly pattern. This pattern continues to grow as more molecules join the group. The atoms in a crystal are arranged in a repeating pattern that extends in all directions. The size, shape, and symmetry of the crystal depend on the conditions under which it forms.

Most crystals grow slowly over time, but some can form quickly. Diamonds, for example, can form in a few million years, while salt can form in a few hours.

Crystals have many uses. They can be used to make jewelry, windowpanes, and optical lenses. They can also be used in technology, such as in computer chips and lasers.

Distillation

Distillation is a process that separates a mixture into its component parts. The mixture is boiled and the vapor is collected. The vapor is then cooled and the liquid is collected. The liquid is then distilled again to remove any remaining vapor.

The components of a mixture will vaporize at different temperatures. The component with the lowest boiling point will vaporize first. The component with the highest boiling point will vaporize last.

Fractional Distillation

Fractional distillation is a process used to separate a mixture of liquids into its component parts. The mixture is heated until the liquids evaporate. The vaporized liquids are then passed through a condenser, where they are cooled and turned back into liquids. The liquids are then separated based on their boiling points. The liquid with the lowest boiling point will vaporize first and will be collected in the bottom of the still. The liquid with the highest boiling point will vaporize last and will be collected in the upper part of the still.

Separating Funnel

This type of funnel is designed to separate two substances from each other. The substances can be different colors, sizes, or densities. The funnel has a small hole in the middle, and the two substances are poured into the funnel at the same time. The hole is small enough that the two substances cannot mix together. The funnel is then turned upside down, and the two substances are separated. The heavier substance will fall to the bottom of the funnel, and the lighter substance will stay at the top.

Magnetic Separation

– 911 Metallurgist

Apr 26, 2018 . Magnetic separation is a process used to separate materials from those that are not . Magnetic separation is a process used to separate materials from those that are not magnetic. . When a mixture of materials that are not magnetic is passed over a . the magnetic field and the non-magnetic material is carried away.

Chromatography

Chromatography is a technique used to separate the components of a mixture.

The mixture is placed on a thin layer of material, such as paper, and a solvent is then applied. The solvent travels up the paper, dissolving the components of the mixture. The different components then travel at different speeds, and can be separated based on their different rates of travel.