Table of Contents
Solid State Chemistry
Solid state chemistry is the study of the properties of solids and their interactions with other substances. It is a relatively new field that has developed in response to the increasing availability of powerful computers and the need to understand the behavior of materials at the atomic level.
One of the main goals of solid state chemistry is to develop new materials that can be used in a variety of applications. Some of the areas that have seen the most progress are electronics, energy storage, and catalysis. In particular, solid state chemists have been able to create materials that can be used in solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells.
Another important goal of solid state chemistry is to understand the behavior of materials at the atomic level. By understanding the way atoms interact with each other, we can develop new materials that have specific properties that we desire. For example, by understanding the way atoms interact, we can create materials that are good electrical conductors or that are resistant to corrosion.
One of the most important tools in solid state chemistry is the computer. With the help of computers, we can model the behavior of materials at the atomic level and determine how they will interact with other substances. This allows us to develop new materials that are tailored to specific applications.
Solid state chemistry is a rapidly growing field that has a lot of potential for future growth. By understanding the behavior of materials at the atomic level, we can develop new materials that can be used in a variety of applications.
Characteristics of Solid
A solid has a definite shape and volume. It can be poured into a container and the shape of the container will be retained. A solid can be broken into smaller pieces, but the pieces will still have the same shape and volume as the whole solid. Solids are held together by forces of attraction between the particles.
What makes Solids have Properties Different From that of Liquids and Gases?
Solids have a definite shape and volume, and they are held together by forces that resist changes in shape and volume. Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape, and they are held together by forces that resist changes in shape but not in volume. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume, and they are held together by forces that resist changes in both shape and volume.
Piezoelectricity-A
property of some materials that causes them to produce an electric potential in response to applied mechanical stress.
Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials to produce an electric potential in response to applied mechanical stress. This electric potential can be harnessed to create electricity. Piezoelectric materials are typically made of crystals, such as quartz, that have a repeating crystalline structure. When force is applied to these materials, the crystals can deform, creating an electric potential.
Pyroelectricity
- Pyroelectricity is the ability of certain materials to generate an electrical charge in response to a temperature change. The word “pyroelectric” comes from the Greek words “pyro” (fire) and “electric” (electricity).
- Certain materials, such as quartz and tourmaline, have a natural pyroelectricity. When these materials are heated, they generate a charge. When they are cooled, they lose the charge.
- Pyroelectric materials can be used to create pyroelectric generators. These generators convert the heat energy of fire into electrical energy. Pyroelectric generators have been used to power small devices, such as flashlights and radios.
Ferroelectricity
- Ferroelectricity is a property of certain materials in which they spontaneously assume a preferred electric polarization direction. This polarization can be reversed by applying an external electric field.
- Ferroelectricity is exhibited by certain materials, including certain ceramics, ferrites, and lithium niobate. In these materials, the polarization (direction of the electric field) can spontaneously change, usually in response to a change in temperature. When a ferroelectric material is placed in an electric field, the polarization will align with the field, and can be reversed by reversing the field.
- Ferroelectricity is used in a number of applications, including memory devices, voltage-controlled oscillators, and ultrasonic transducers.
Anti – Ferroelectricity
Ferroelectricity is a physical phenomenon in which a material spontaneously acquires a permanent electric polarization in the presence of an applied electric field. This polarization can be reversed by applying an external electric field of opposite polarity.
Amorphous and Crystalline Solids
An amorphous solid is a material that does not have a regular, repeating atomic or molecular structure. Glass is an example of an amorphous solid. A crystalline solid is a material that does have a regular, repeating atomic or molecular structure. Diamond is an example of a crystalline solid.
Classification of Crystalline Solids
There are five main types of crystalline solids, which are classified by their constituent atoms.
- Ionic solids are composed of ions, which are atoms that have lost or gained electrons. Ionic solids are held together by electrostatic forces. Examples of ionic solids include NaCl (table salt) and KCl.
- Covalent solids are composed of atoms that share electrons. Covalent solids are held together by chemical forces. Examples of covalent solids include diamond and graphite.
- Metallic solids are composed of atoms that share electrons. Metallic solids are held together by metallic bonds. Examples of metallic solids include gold and silver.
- Molecular solids are composed of molecules. Molecular solids are held together by chemical forces. Examples of molecular solids include water and carbon dioxide.
- Network solids are composed of atoms that share electrons. Network solids are held together by metallic or covalent bonds. Examples of network solids include diamond and quartz.
Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell
A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a regularly repeating pattern. The repeating pattern is called a unit cell.
The unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice. It is the basic building block of crystals.
The unit cell has the following properties:
- It has a definite shape.
- It has a definite volume.
- The atoms, ions, or molecules in the unit cell are arranged in a regular pattern.
- The unit cell can be repeated over and over again to form a crystal lattice.
14 – Types of Bravais Lattice
There are 14 Bravais lattices, which are classified into seven crystal systems.
1. Cubic crystal system
2. Tetragonal crystal system
3. Orthorhombic crystal system
4. Monoclinic crystal system
5. Hexagonal crystal system
6. Triclinic crystal system
7. Rhombohedral crystal system
1. Cubic: The cubic Bravais lattice is the simplest and most symmetrical of the 14 lattices. It has three axes of equal length, all perpendicular to each other, and all intersecting at a single point.
2. Tetragonal: The tetragonal Bravais lattice is similar to the cubic lattice, but has one of its axes lengthened. This creates four axes of equal length, all perpendicular to each other and intersecting at a single point.
3. Orthorhombic: The orthorhombic Bravais lattice has three axes of unequal length, all perpendicular to each other and intersecting at angles of 90 degrees.
4. Monoclinic: The monoclinic Bravais lattice has two axes of unequal length, both perpendicular to each other and intersecting at angles of 90 degrees. The third axis is at an angle of 120 degrees to the other two.
5. Hexagonal: The hexagonal Bravais lattice has three axes of equal length, but they are
List of 14 – Types of Bravais Lattices
There are 14 Bravais lattices, which are classified into seven crystal systems.
1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Hexagonal
6. Triclinic
7. Rhombohedral
1. Cubic
The cubic lattice is the simplest and most symmetrical of the Bravais lattices. It has three mutually perpendicular axes of symmetry and six axes of rotational symmetry.
2. Tetragonal
The tetragonal lattice has four axes of symmetry, two of which are perpendicular to each other.
3. Orthorhombic
The orthorhombic lattice has three perpendicular axes of symmetry.
4. Monoclinic
The monoclinic lattice has one perpendicular axis of symmetry and two axes of rotational symmetry.
5. Hexagonal
The hexagonal lattice has six axes of symmetry, three of which are perpendicular to each other.
6. Triclinic
The triclinic lattice has no perpendicular axes of symmetry and typically has many axes of rotational symmetry.
7. Rhombohedral
The rhombohedral lattice has three axes of symmetry, all of which are perpendicular to each other.
Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell
The number of atoms in a unit cell is dependent on the type of crystal. In general, a unit cell contains one atom of each type of atom in the crystal.
Close–Packed Structures
Close-packed structures are those in which the atoms are as close together as possible. This can be done in two ways:
1. Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure. In an FCC structure, the atoms are arranged in a cubic pattern, with each atom located at the center of a cube formed by the other atoms.
2. Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure. In an HCP structure, the atoms are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, with each atom located at the center of a hexagon formed by the other atoms.
Both FCC and HCP structures are close-packed.
Packing Efficiency
The study found that the average American worker wastes almost an hour a day packing and unpacking their belongings. This equates to more than 250 hours a year – or more than six full days.
The study also found that workers living in small apartments or who have to share a workspace with others are more likely to waste time packing and unpacking their belongings.
Solutions
There are a few ways to help reduce the amount of time wasted packing and unpacking belongings.
One solution is to declutter your belongings. Get rid of anything you don’t need or use on a regular basis. This will make packing and unpacking much easier.
Another solution is to invest in quality packing materials. This will help keep your belongings safe and organized during transport.
Finally, create a packing system that works for you. This could involve packing everything in specific boxes or bags, or packing similar items together. Having a system in place will make packing and unpacking much faster and easier.
Following Factors Affect The Packing Efficiency of The Crystalline Solids
-The size of the solid
-The shape of the solid
-The packing density of the solid
-The surface area of the solid
Importance of Packing Efficiency
Packing efficiency is important for a number of reasons. The most obvious reason is that it allows you to fit more items into a smaller space. This is especially important when packing for a move, as it can save you on packing materials and reduce the amount of time it takes to pack.
Packing efficiency is also important when it comes to weight. The more efficiently you pack, the less weight you will have to carry. This can be especially important when packing for a camping trip or when travelling by plane.
Finally, packing efficiency can also save you money. If you can fit more items into a smaller space, you will need less packing materials. This can save you money on boxes, bubble wrap, packing peanuts, and other packing supplies.
Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions
To find the edge length of a unit cell, divide the space between the atoms by the number of atoms in the unit cell.
The edge length of a unit cell is 2.8 Å.
To find the distance between atoms in a unit cell, divide the edge length of the unit cell by the number of atoms in the unit cell.
The distance between atoms in a unit cell is 0.8 Å.
Imperfections in Solids
There are many imperfections in solids.
One type of imperfection is a hole. A hole is a space in a solid where there is no material.
Another type of imperfection is a crack. A crack is a break in the material of a solid.
Cracks can be very small or they can be very large.
Another type of imperfection is a grain. A grain is a small, bumpy feature in the material of a solid.
Grains can be very small or they can be very large.
What are Point Defects?
A point defect is a type of defect that only exists at a single point in a material. These defects can seriously impair the material’s properties and can cause it to break down. Point defects are usually caused by impurities or damage to the material.
Types of Point Defects
There are three types of point defects:
vacancies,
interstitials, and
impurities.
Vacancies are missing atoms in the crystal lattice. Interstitials are atoms that are in the wrong place in the lattice. Impurities are atoms that are not part of the crystal lattice.
Stoichiometric Defects Can Be Divided Into Following Types
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Surface defects
4. Volume defects
This Defect Increases The Density of The Crystal. It Causes Atomic Distortion.
This defect increases the density of the crystal. It causes atomic distortion.
The Nature of Schottky Defects
in Silicon
A Schottky defect is a type of defect that can form in silicon when a metal is in contact with it. These defects are caused by the interaction between the metal and the silicon, and they can cause problems in the silicon device.
Schottky defects can cause a number of problems in silicon devices. They can cause a decrease in the device’s performance, and they can also cause the device to fail. Additionally, Schottky defects can create a path for current to flow through the device, which can cause overheating and damage to the device.
Schottky defects can be eliminated or reduced by proper processing and design of the silicon device. By carefully controlling the process and the design of the device, these defects can be minimized or eliminated.
Concentration of Defects
The concentration of defects is measured in parts per million (ppm). This is the number of defects divided by the number of total components in the sample. For example, if a sample has 100 defects and there are 10,000 total components, the concentration of defects would be 1,000 ppm.
Frenkel Defect Examples
A Frenkel defect is a type of defect in a crystal lattice. In a Frenkel defect, an atom is displaced from its normal position in the lattice, and a bond is broken. This can cause a disruption in the flow of electrons through the crystal, which can lead to a number of problems, such as a reduction in the strength of the material, or an increase in its electrical resistance.
Some common examples of Frenkel defects include dislocations, point defects, and grain boundaries.
Reason for Frenkel Defect
The Frenkel defect is a result of the displacement of an electron from its normal position in an atom. This displacement can be caused by a number of factors, including heat, radiation, or a collision with another object.
There is a global pandemic of obesity. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that obesity is now a global epidemic, with more than 1.4 billion adults overweight and 600 million of them clinically obese.
This number is only going to increase, as countries become more developed, and their citizens become more affluent.
Obesity is defined as a condition in which a person has an excessive amount of body fat. It is usually assessed using the body mass index (BMI), a measure of a person’s weight in relation to their height.
A person is considered to be obese if their BMI is 30 or more.
There are a number of health risks associated with obesity, including heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer.
Calculation of Number of Frenkel Defects
The number of Frenkel defects can be calculated by multiplying the number of atoms in the lattice by the number of Frenkel defects per atom.
The number of atoms in the lattice can be found by multiplying the lattice constant by the number of atoms in a unit cell.
The number of Frenkel defects per atom can be found by multiplying the number of Frenkel defects by the number of atoms in a molecule.
Difference Between Schottky and Frenkel Defect
s
The Schottky defect is a type of vacancy defect that occurs when a metal atom is missing from a crystal lattice. The Frenkel defect is a type of dislocation defect that occurs when a crystal lattice has been rearranged. Schottky defects are more common than Frenkel defects.
Electrical Properties of Solids
Electrical properties of solids are determined by the number and type of atoms in the solid, the type of bonding between atoms, and the distance between atoms.
The number and type of atoms in a solid affects the number of electrons in the solid. The type of bonding between atoms affects the strength of the electron-atom bonds. The distance between atoms affects the strength of the electron-atom bonds and the likelihood that electrons will move from one atom to another.
The electrical properties of a solid depend on the type of atoms in the solid, the type of bonding between atoms, and the distance between atoms.
